Lower Cape Fear River Program 2013 reportEnvironmental Assessment of the Lower
Cape Fear River System, 2013
By
Michael A. Mallin, Matthew R. McIver and James F. Merritt
August 2014
CMS Report No. 14-02
Center for Marine Science
University of North Carolina Wilmington
Wilmington, N.C. 28409
Executive Summary
Multiparameter water sampling for the Lower Cape Fear River Program (LCFRP) has
been ongoing since June 1995. Scientists from the University of North Carolina
Wilmington’s (UNCW) Aquatic Ecology Laboratory perform the sampling effort. The
LCFRP currently encompasses 33 water sampling stations throughout the lower Cape
Fear, Black, and Northeast Cape Fear River watersheds. The LCFRP sampling
program includes physical, chemical, and biological water quality measurements and
analyses of the benthic and epibenthic macroinvertebrate communities, and has in the
past included assessment of the fish communities. Principal conclusions of the UNCW
researchers conducting these analyses are presented below, with emphasis on water
quality of the period January - December 2013. The opinions expressed are those of
UNCW scientists and do not necessarily reflect viewpoints of individual contributors to
the Lower Cape Fear River Program.
The mainstem lower Cape Fear River is a 6th order stream characterized by periodically
turbid water containing moderate to high levels of inorganic nutrients. It is fed by two
large 5th order blackwater rivers (the Black and Northeast Cape Fear Rivers) that have
low levels of turbidity, but highly colored water with less inorganic nutrient content than
the mainstem. While nutrients are reasonably high in the river channels, major algal
blooms have until recently been rare because light is attenuated by water color or
turbidity, and flushing is usually high (Ensign et al. 2004). During periods of low flow (as
in 2008-2012) algal biomass as chlorophyll a increases in the river because lower flow
causes settling of more solids and improves light conditions for algal growth.
Periodically major algal blooms are seen in the tributary stream stations, some of which
are impacted by point source discharges. Below some point sources, nutrient loading
can be high and fecal coliform contamination occurs. Other stream stations drain
blackwater swamps or agricultural areas, some of which periodically show elevated
pollutant loads or effects (Mallin et al. 2001).
Average annual dissolved oxygen (DO) levels at the river channel stations for 2012
were slightly lower than the average for 1995-2011. Dissolved oxygen levels were
lowest during the summer and early fall, often falling below the state standard of 5.0
mg/L at several river and upper estuary stations. There is a dissolved oxygen sag in the
main river channel that begins at Station DP below a paper mill discharge and near the
Black River input, and persists into the mesohaline portion of the estuary. Mean oxygen
levels were highest at the upper river stations NC11 and AC and in the middle to lower
estuary at stations M35 to M18. Lowest mainstem average 2013 DO levels occurred at
the lower river and upper estuary stations DP, IC, NAV, HB, BRR and M61 (6.7-6.8
mg/L). As the water reaches the lower estuary higher algal productivity, mixing and
ocean dilution help alleviate oxygen problems.
The Northeast Cape Fear and Black Rivers generally have lower DO levels than the
mainstem Cape Fear River. These rivers are classified as blackwater systems because
of their tea colored water. The Northeast Cape Fear River generally has lower
dissolved oxygen than the Black River; as such, in 2013 Stations NCF117 and B210,
representing those rivers, had average DO concentrations of 6.1 and 6.4 mg/L,
respectively. Several stream stations were severely stressed in terms of low dissolved
oxygen during the year 2013. Stations NAV, HB, BRR, and M61 were all below 5.0
mg/L on 33% or more of occasions sampled, and IC, DP and M54 were below on 25%
of occasions sampled. Considering all sites sampled in 2013, we rated 25% as poor for
dissolved oxygen, 19% as fair, and 59% as good, an improvement from 2012
Annual mean turbidity levels for 2013 were lower than the long-term average in all
estuary stations. Highest mean turbidities were at NC11-DP, plus NAV (11-12 NTU)
with turbidities generally low in the middle to lower estuary. The estuarine stations did
not exceed the estuarine turbidity standard on our 2013 sampling trips. Turbidity was
considerably lower in the blackwater tributaries (Northeast Cape Fear River and Black
River) than in the mainstem river. Average turbidity levels were low in the freshwater
streams, with the exception of one excursion to 90 NTU in December at LRC.
Regarding stream stations, chronic or periodic high nitrate levels were found at a
number of sites, including ROC (Rockfish Creek), 6RC (Six Runs Creek), PB (panther
Branch), NC403 and GCO (Great Coharie Creek). Average chlorophyll a
concentrations across all sites were low in 2013. We note the highest levels in the river
and estuary typically occur in mid-summer; during the growing season May-September
river flow as measured by USGS at Lock and Dam #1 was much higher for 2013
compared with the 1995-2012 long-term average (6,975 CFS compared with 3,361
CFS). Higher flows restrict algal bloom formation by maintaining relatively high turbidity;
thus troublesome cyanobacteria (i.e. blue-green algal blooms) did not occur in the Cape
Fear River during 2013. Stream algal blooms exceeding 20 µg/L in 2012 occurred at
ANC, NC403, PB and LRC. A few minor algal blooms occurred at stream stations PB
and ANC. Several stream stations, particularly PB, BRN, HAM (Hammond Creek), GS,
N403, ROC, LRC and ANC showed high fecal coliform bacteria counts on a number of
occasions.
For the 2013 period UNCW rated 100% of the stations as good in terms of chlorophyll a
and turbidity. Fecal coliform bacteria counts were high in the system in 2013 and the
lower estuary had high enterococcus on some occasions. For bacterial water quality
overall, 34% of the sites rated as poor, 28% as fair, and 38% as good in 2013. Using
the 5.0 mg/L DO standard for the mainstem river stations, and the 4.0 mg/L “swamp
water” DO standard for the stream stations and blackwater river stations, 44% of the
sites were rated poor or fair for dissolved oxygen. In addition, by our UNCW standards
excessive nitrate and phosphorus concentrations were problematic at a number of
stations (Chapter 3).
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction...........................................................................………...............…........1
1.1 Site Description................................................………....................................2
1.2 Report Organization………………………………………………………..……..3
2.0 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics of the Lower Cape Fear River
and Estuary………………………………………………..……………………................7
Physical Parameters..…......................………..........................................……....10
Chemical Parameters…....……..……….........................................................…..14
Biological Parameters.......……….....……......................................................…..17
1.0 Introduction
Michael A. Mallin
Center for Marine Science
University of North Carolina Wilmington
The Lower Cape Fear River Program is a unique science and education program that
has a mission to develop an understanding of processes that control and influence the
ecology of the Cape Fear River, and to provide a mechanism for information exchange
and public education. This program provides a forum for dialogue among the various
Cape Fear River user groups and encourages interaction among them. Overall policy is
set by an Advisory Board consisting of representatives from citizen’s groups, local
government, industries, academia, the business community, and regulatory agencies.
This report represents the scientific conclusions of the UNCW researchers participating
in this program and does not necessarily reflect opinions of all other program
participants. This report focuses on the period January through December 2013.
The scientific basis of the LCFRP consists of the implementation of an ongoing
comprehensive physical, chemical, and biological monitoring program. Another part of
the mission is to develop and maintain a data base on the Cape Fear basin and make
use of this data to develop management plans. Presently the program has amassed an
18-year (1995-2013) data base that is available to the public, and is used as a teaching
tool for programs like UNCW’s River Run. Using this monitoring data as a framework
the program goals also include focused scientific projects and investigation of pollution
episodes. The scientific aspects of the program are carried out by investigators from
the University of North Carolina Wilmington Center for Marine Science. The monitoring
program was developed by the Lower Cape Fear River Program Technical Committee,
which consists of representatives from UNCW, the North Carolina Division of Water
Quality, The NC Division of Marine Fisheries, the US Army Corps of Engineers,
technical representatives from streamside industries, the Cape Fear Public Utility
Authority, Cape Fear Community College, Cape Fear River Watch, the North Carolina
Cooperative Extension Service, the US Geological Survey, forestry and agriculture
organizations, and others. This integrated and cooperative program was the first of its
kind in North Carolina.
Broad-scale monthly water quality sampling at 16 stations in the estuary and lower river
system began in June 1995 (UNCW Aquatic Ecology Laboratory, directed by Dr.
Michael Mallin). Sampling was increased to 34 stations in February of 1996, 35 stations
in February 1998, and 36 stations in 2005, then lowered to 33 in 2011. The Lower
Cape Fear River Program added another component concerned with studying the
benthic macrofauna of the system in 1996. This component is directed by Dr. Martin
Posey and Mr. Troy Alphin of the UNCW Biology Department and includes the benefit of
additional data collected by the Benthic Ecology Laboratory under Sea Grant and NSF
sponsored projects in the Cape Fear Estuary. These data are collected and analyzed
depending upon the availability of funding. The third major biotic component (added in
1
January 1996) was an extensive fisheries program directed by Dr. Mary Moser of the
UNCW Center for Marine Science Research, with subsequent (1999) overseeing by Mr.
Michael Williams and Dr. Thomas Lankford of UNCW-CMS. This program involved
cooperative sampling with the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries and the North
Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. The fisheries program ended in December
1999, but was renewed with additional funds from the Z. Smith Reynolds Foundation
from spring – winter 2000. The regular sampling that was conducted by UNCW
biologists was assumed by the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries.
1.1. Site Description
The mainstem of the Cape Fear River is formed by the merging of the Haw and the
Deep Rivers in Chatham County in the North Carolina Piedmont. However, its drainage
basin reaches as far upstream as the Greensboro area (Fig. 1.1). The mainstem of the
river has been altered by the construction of several dams and water control structures.
In the coastal plain, the river is joined by two major tributaries, the Black and the
Northeast Cape Fear Rivers (Fig. 1.1). These 5th order blackwater streams drain
extensive riverine swamp forests and add organic color to the mainstem. The
watershed (about 9,164 square miles) is the most heavily industrialized in North
Carolina with 203 permitted wastewater discharges with a permitted flow of
approximately 429 million gallons per day, and (as of 2010) over 2.07 million people
residing in the basin (NCDENR Basinwide Information Management System (BIMS) &
2010 Census). Approximately 23% of the land use in the watershed is devoted to
agriculture and livestock production (2006 National Land Cover Dataset), with livestock
production dominated by swine and poultry operations. Thus, the watershed receives
considerable point and non-point source loading of pollutants. However, the estuary is
a well-flushed system, with flushing time ranging from 1 to 22 days with a median
flushing time of about seven days, much shorter than the other large N.C. estuaries to
the north (Ensign et al. 2004).
Water quality is monitored by boat at eight stations in the Cape Fear Estuary (from
Navassa to Southport) and one station in the Northeast Cape Fear Estuary (Table 1.1;
Fig. 1.1). We note that after July 2011 sampling was discontinued at stations M42 and
SPD, per agreement with the North Carolina Division of Water Quality; and in 2012
sampling was expanded at Smith Creek at the Castle Hayne Road bridge (Table 1.1)
and initiated at a new site along the South River (SR-WC). Riverine stations sampled
by boat include NC11, AC, DP, IC, and BBT (Table 1.1; Fig. 1.1). NC11 is located
upstream of any major point source discharges in the lower river and estuary system,
and is considered to be representative of water quality entering the lower system (we
note that the City of Wilmington and portions of Brunswick County get their drinking
water from the river just upstream of Lock and Dan #1). Station BBT is located on the
Black River between Thoroughfare (a stream connecting the Cape Fear and Black
Rivers) and the mainstem Cape Fear, and is influenced by both rivers. We consider
B210 and NCF117 to represent water quality entering the lower Black and Northeast
Cape Fear Rivers, respectively. Data has also been collected at stream and river
2
stations throughout the Cape Fear, Northeast Cape Fear, and Black River watersheds
(Table 1.1; Fig. 1.1; Mallin et al. 2001).
1.2. Report Organization
This report contains two sections assessing LCFRP data. Section 2 presents an
overview of physical, chemical, and biological water quality data from the 33 individual
stations, and provides tables of raw data as well as figures showing spatial or temporal
trends.
The LCFRP has a website that contains maps and an extensive amount of past water
quality, benthos, and fisheries data gathered by the Program available at:
www.uncw.edu/cms/aelab/LCFRP/.
References Cited
Ensign, S.H., J.N. Halls and M.A. Mallin. 2004. Application of digital bathymetry data in an analysis of flushing times of two North Carolina estuaries. Computers and Geosciences 30:501-511. Mallin, M.A., S.H. Ensign, M.R. McIver, G.C. Shank and P.K. Fowler. 2001. Demographic, landscape, and meteorological factors controlling the microbial pollution of coastal waters. Hydrobiologia 460:185-193. NCDENR. 2005. Cape Fear River Basinwide Water Quality Plan. North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Water Quality/Planning, Raleigh, NC, 27699-1617.
3
Table 1.1 Description of sampling locations in Lower Cape Fear River Watershed, 2013
Collected by Boat
AEL StationDWR Station #Description Comments CountyLatLonStream Class.HUC
NC11B8360000 Cape Fear River at NC 11 nr East
Arcadia
Below Lock and Dam 1, Represents
water entering lower basin Bladen34.3969-78.2675WS-IV Sw03030005
LVC2B8441000 Livingston Creek at Momentive
Walkway nr Acme
DWR ambient station, Downstream
of Momentive Columbus34.3353-78.2011C Sw03030005
ACB8450000 Cape Fear River at Neils Eddy
Landing nr Acme
1 mile below IP, DWR ambient
station Columbus34.3555-78.1794C Sw03030005
DPB8465000 Cape Fear River at Intake nr Hooper
Hill
AT DAK intake, just above
confluence with Black R.Brunswick34.3358-78.0534C Sw03030005
BBT Black River below Lyons ThorofareUNCW AEL station Pender34.3513-78.0490C Sw ORW+0303005
ICB9030000 Cape Fear River ups Indian Creek nr
Phoenix
Downstream of several point source
discharges Brunswick34.3021-78.0137C Sw0303005
NAVB9050025 Cape Fear River dns of RR bridge at
Navassa
Downstream of several point source
discharges Brunswick34.2594-77.9877SC0303005
HBB9050100 Cape Fear River at S. end of
Horseshoe Bend nr Wilmington
Upstream of confluence with NE
Cape Fear River Brunswick34.2437-77.9698SC0303005
BRRB9790000 Brunswick River dns NC 17 at park
nr Belville Near Belville dischargeBrunswick34.2214-77.9787SC03030005
M61B9800000 Cape Fear River at Channel Marker
61 at Wilmington
Downstream of several point source
discharges New Hanover 34.1938-77.9573SC03030005
M54B9795000 Cape Fear River at Channel Marker
54
Downstream of several point source
discharges New Hanover 34.1393-77.946SC03030005
M35B9850100 Cape Fear River at Channel Marker
35
Upstream of Carolina Beach
discharge Brunswick34.0335-77.937SC03030005
M23B9910000 Cape Fear River at Channel Marker
23
Downstream of Carolina Beach
discharge Brunswick33.9456-77.9696SA HQW03030005
M18B9921000 Cape Fear River at Channel Marker
18 Near mouth of Cape Fear RiverBrunswick33.913-78.017SC03030005
NCF6B9670000NE Cape Fear nr Wrightsboro Downstream of several point source
discharges New Hanover 34.3171-77.9538C Sw0303007
Collected by Land
6RCB8740000Six Runs Creek at SR 1003 nr Ingold Upstream of Black River, CAFOs in
watershed Sampson34.7933-78.3113C Sw ORW+03030006
LCOB8610001 Little Coharie Creek at SR 1207 nr
Ingold
Upstream of Great Coharie, CAFOs
in watershed Sampson34.8347-78.3709C Sw03030006
GCOB8604000 Great Coharie Creek at SR 1214 nr
Butler Crossroads
Downstream of Clinton, CAFOs in
watershed Sampson34.9186-78.3887C Sw03030006
SRB8470000South River at US 13 nr CooperDownstream of DunnSampson35.156-78.6401C Sw03030006
BRNB8340050 Browns Creek at NC87 nr
Elizabethtown CAFOs in watershedBladen34.6136-78.5848C03030005
HAMB8340200 Hammond Creek at SR 1704 nr Mt.
Olive CAFOs in watershedBladen34.5685-78.5515C03030005
4
Collected by Land
6RCSix Runs Creek at SR 1003 nr IngoldB8740000Sampson34.7933-78.3113C Sw ORW+03030006
LCO Little Coharie Creek at SR 1207 nr
Ingold B8610001Sampson34.8347-78.3709C Sw03030006
GCO Great Coharie Creek at SR 1214 nr
Butler Crossroads B8604000Sampson34.9186-78.3887C Sw03030006
SRSouth River at US 13 nr CooperB8470000Sampson35.156-78.6401C Sw03030006
BRN Browns Creek at NC87 nr
Elizabethtown B8340050Bladen34.6136-78.5848C03030005
HAM Hammond Creek at SR 1704 nr Mt.
Olive B8340200Bladen34.5685-78.5515C03030005
COLColly Creek at NC 53 at CollyB8981000Bladen34.4641-78.2569C Sw03030006
B210Black River at NC 210 at Still BluffB9000000Pender34.4312-78.1441C Sw ORW+03030006
NC403 NE Cape Fear River at NC 403 nr
Williams B9090000Duplin35.1784-77.9807C Sw0303007
PBPanther Branch (Creek) nr FaisonB9130000Duplin35.1345-78.1363C Sw0303007
GS Goshen Swamp at NC 11 and NC 903
nr Kornegay B9191000Duplin35.0281-77.8516C Sw0303007
SAR NE Cape Fear River SR 1700 nr
Sarecta B9191500Duplin34.9801-77.8622C Sw0303007
ROCRockfish Creek at US 117 nr WallaceB9430000Duplin34.7168-77.9795C Sw0303007
LRC Little Rockfish Creek at NC 11 nr
Wallace B9460000Duplin34.7224-77.9814C Sw0303007
ANCAngola Creek at NC 53 nr Maple HillB9490000Pender34.6562-77.7351C Sw0303007
SR WC South River at SR 1007
(Wildcat/Ennis Bridge Road)B8920000Sampson34.6402-78.3116C Sw ORW+03030006
NCF117 NE Cape Fear River at US 117 at
Castle Hayne B9580000New Hanover34.3637-77.8965B Sw0303007
SC-CH Smith Creek at US 117 and NC 133 at
Wilmington B9720000New Hanover34.2586-77.9391C Sw0303007
5
Figure 1.1. Map of the Lower Cape Fear River system and the LCFRP sampling stations.
6
2.0 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics of the
Lower Cape Fear River and Estuary
Michael A. Mallin and Matthew R. McIver
Aquatic Ecology Laboratory
Center for Marine Science
University of North Carolina Wilmington
2.1 - Introduction
This section of the report includes a discussion of the physical, chemical, and biological
water quality parameters, concentrating on the January-December 2013 Lower Cape Fear
River Program monitoring period. These parameters are interdependent and define the
overall condition of the river. Physical parameters measured during this study included
water temperature, dissolved oxygen, field turbidity and laboratory turbidity, total
suspended solids (TSS), salinity, conductivity, pH and light attenuation. The chemical
makeup of the Cape Fear River was investigated by measuring the magnitude and
composition of nitrogen and phosphorus in the water. Three biological parameters
including fecal coliform bacteria or enterococcus bacteria, chlorophyll a and biochemical
oxygen demand were examined.
2.2 - Materials and Methods
All samples and field parameters collected for the estuarine stations of the Cape Fear
River (NAV down through M18) were gathered on an ebb tide. This was done so that the
data better represented the river water flowing downstream through the system rather than
the tidal influx of coastal ocean water. Sample collection and analyses were conducted
according to the procedures in the Lower Cape Fear River Program Quality
Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) manual. Technical Representatives from the LCFRP
Technical Committee and representatives from the NC Division of Water Quality inspect
UNCW laboratory procedures and periodically accompany field teams to verify proper
procedures are followed. By agreement with N.C. Division of Water Quality, after June
2011 sampling was discontinued at stations M42 and SPD, but full sampling was added at
SC-CH and SR-WC in 2012. We note the Town of Burgaw left the program as of 2013
and Stations BCRR and BC117 are no longer being sampled.
Physical Parameters
Water Temperature, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Turbidity, Light, Salinity, Conductivity
Field parameters other than light attenuation were measured at each site using a YSI 6920
(or 6820) multi-parameter water quality sonde displayed on a YSI 650 MDS. Each
parameter is measured with individual probes on the sonde. At stations sampled by boat
(see Table 1.1) physical parameters were measured at 0.1 m and at the bottom (up to 12
m). Occasionally, high flow prohibited the sonde from reaching the actual bottom and
7
measurements were taken as deep as possible. At the terrestrially sampled stations (i.e.
from bridges or docks) the physical parameters were measured at a depth of 0.1 m. The
Aquatic Ecology Laboratory at the UNCW CMS is State-certified by the N.C. Division of
Water Quality to perform field parameter measurements. The light attenuation coefficient k
was determined from data collected on-site using vertical profiles obtained by a Li-Cor LI-
1000 integrator interfaced with a Li-Cor LI-193S spherical quantum sensor.
Chemical Parameters
Nutrients
A local State-certified analytical laboratory was contracted to conduct all chemical
analyses except for orthophosphate, which is performed at CMS. The following methods
detail the techniques used by CMS personnel for orthophosphate analysis.
Orthophosphate (PO4-3)
Water samples were collected ca. 0.1 m below the surface in triplicate in amber 125 mL
Nalgene plastic bottles and placed on ice. In the laboratory 50 mL of each triplicate was
filtered through separate1.0 micron pre-combusted glass fiber filters, which were frozen
and later analyzed for chlorophyll a. The triplicate filtrates were pooled in a glass flask,
mixed thoroughly, and approximately 100 mL was poured into a 125 mL plastic bottle to be
analyzed for orthophosphate. Samples were frozen until analysis.
Orthophosphate analyses were performed in duplicate using an approved US EPA method
for the Bran-Lubbe AutoAnalyzer (Method 365.5). In this technique the orthophosphate in
each sample reacts with ammonium molybdate and anitmony potassium tartrate in an
acidic medium (sulfuric acid) to form an anitmony-phospho-molybdate complex. The
complex is then reacted with ascorbic acid and forms a deep blue color. The intensity of
the color is measured at a wavelength of 880 nm by a colorimeter and displayed on a chart
recorder. Standards and spiked samples were analyzed for quality assurance.
Biological Parameters
Fecal Coliform Bacteria / Enterococcus
Fecal coliform bacteria were analyzed by a State-certified laboratory contracted by the
LCFRP. Samples were collected approximately 0.1 m below the surface in sterile plastic
bottles provided by the contract laboratory and placed on ice for no more than six hours
before analysis. After August 2011 the fecal coliform analysis was changed to
Enterococcus in the estuarine stations downstream of NAV and HB (Stations BRR, M61,
M35, M23 and M18).
8
Chlorophyll a
The analytical method used to measure chlorophyll a is described in Welschmeyer (1994)
and was performed by CMS personnel. Chlorophyll a concentrations were determined
utilizing the 1.0 micron filters used for filtering samples for orthophosphate analysis. All
filters were wrapped individually in foil, placed in airtight containers and stored in the
freezer. During analysis each filter was immersed in 10 mL of 90% acetone for 24 hours,
which extracts the chlorophyll a into solution. Chlorophyll a concentration of each solution
was measured on a Turner 10-AU fluorometer. The fluorometer uses an optimal
combination of excitation and emission bandwidth filters which reduces the errors inherent
in the acidification technique.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Five sites were originally chosen for BOD analysis. One site was located at NC11,
upstream of International Paper, and a second site was at AC, about 3 miles downstream
of International Paper (Fig.1.1). Two sites were located in blackwater rivers (NCF117 and
B210) and one site (BBT) was situated in an area influenced by both the mainstem Cape
Fear River and the Black River. For the sampling period May 2000-April 2004 additional
BOD data were collected at stream stations 6RC, LCO, GCO, BRN, HAM and COL in the
Cape Fear and Black River watersheds. In May 2004 those stations were dropped and
sampling commenced at ANC, SAR, GS, N403, ROC and BC117 in the Northeast Cape
Fear River watershed for several years. The procedure used for BOD analysis is Method
5210 in Standard Methods (APHA 1995). Samples were analyzed for both 5-day and 20-
day BOD. During the analytical period, samples were kept in airtight bottles and placed in
an incubator at 20o C. All experiments were initiated within 6 hours of sample collection.
Samples were analyzed in duplicate. Dissolved oxygen measurements were made using
a YSI Model 5000 meter that was air-calibrated. No adjustments were made for pH since
most samples exhibited pH values within or very close to the desired 6.5-7.5 range (pH is
monitored during the analysis as well); a few sites have naturally low pH and there was no
adjustment for these samples because it would alter the natural water chemistry and affect
true BOD. Data are presented within for the five original sites.
Parameter Method NC DWR Certified
Water Temperature SM 2550B-2000 Yes
Dissolved Oxygen SM 4500O G-2001 Yes
pH SM 4500 H B-2000 Yes
Specific Conductivity SM 2510 B-1997 Yes
Lab Turbidity SM 2130 B-2001 Yes
Field Turbidity SM 2130 B-2001 No
Chlorophyll a Welschmeyer 1994 No
9
Biochemical Oxygen Demand SM 5210 B-2001 No
Parameter Method NC DWR Certified
Total Nitrogen By addition
Nitrate + Nitrite EPA 353.2 Rev 2.0 1993 Yes
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen EPA 351.2 Rev 2.0 1993Yes
Ammonia Nitrogen EPA 350.1 Rev 2.0 1993 Yes
Total Phosphorus SM 4500 P E-1999 Yes
Orthophosphate EPA 365.5 No
Fecal Coliform SM 9222 D-1997 Yes
Enterococcus Enterolert IDEXX Yes
2.3 - Results and Discussion
This section includes results from monitoring of the physical, biological, and chemical
parameters at all stations for the time period January-December 2013. Discussion of the
data focuses both on the river channel stations and stream stations, which sometimes
reflect poorer water quality than mainstem stations. The contributions of the two large
blackwater tributaries, the Northeast Cape Fear River and the Black River, are represented
by conditions at NCF117 and B210, respectively. The Cape Fear Region did not
experience any significant hurricane activity during this monitoring period (after major
hurricanes in 1996, 1998, and 1999). Therefore this report reflects low to medium to
somewhat elevated flow conditions for the Cape Fear River and Estuary.
Physical Parameters
Water temperature
Water temperatures at all stations ranged from 3.5 to 28.9oC, and individual station annual
averages ranged from 15.4 to 19.5oC (Table 2.1). Highest temperatures occurred during
July and August and lowest temperatures during January. Stream stations were generally
cooler than river stations, most likely because of shading and lower nighttime air
temperatures affecting the shallower waters.
Salinity
Salinity at the estuarine stations (NAV through M18; also NCF6 in the Northeast Cape
Fear River) ranged from 0.1 to 34.5 practical salinity units (psu) and station annual means
ranged from 1.7 to 25.5 psu (Table 2.2). Lowest salinities occurred in mid-summer and
highest salinities occurred in late fall and winter. The annual mean salinity for 2013 was
10
similar to that of the seventeen-year average for 1995-2012 for all of the estuarine stations
(Figure 2.1). Two stream stations, NC403 and PB, had occasional oligohaline conditions
due to discharges from pickle production facilities. SC-CH is a tidal creek that enters the
Northeast Cape Fear River upstream of Wilmington and salinity there ranged widely, from
0.1 to 15.9 psu.
Conductivity
Conductivity at the estuarine stations ranged from 0.07 to 52.4 mS/cm and from 0.07 to
6.93 mS/cm at the freshwater stations (Table 2.3). Temporal conductivity patterns
followed those of salinity. Dissolved ionic compounds increase the conductance of water,
therefore, conductance increases and decreases with salinity, often reflecting river flow
conditions due to rainfall. Stations PB and NC403 are below industrial discharges, and
often have elevated conductivity. Smith Creek (SC-CH) is an estuarine tidal creek and the
conductivity values reflect this (Table 2.3).
pH
pH values ranged from 3.6 to 8.2 and station annual means ranged from 4.0 to 8.0 (Table
2.4). pH was typically lowest upstream due to acidic swamp water inputs and highest
downstream as alkaline seawater mixes with the river water. Low pH values at COL
predominate because of naturally acidic blackwater inputs at this near-pristine stream
station. We also note that LRC had an unusually high pH level (8.1) in April 2013 (Table
2.4).
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) problems have been a major water quality concern in the lower
Cape Fear River and its estuary, and several of the tributary streams (Mallin et al. 1999;
2000; 2001a; 2001b; 2002a; 2002b; 2003; 2004; 2005a; 2006a; 2006b; 2007; 2008; 2009;
2010; 2011; 2012; 2013). Surface concentrations for all sites in 2013 ranged from 0.4 to
12.5 mg/L and station annual means ranged from 5.0 to 9.9 mg/L (Table 2.5). Average
annual DO levels at the river channel and estuarine stations for 2013 were similar to the
average for 1995-2012 (Figure 2.2). River dissolved oxygen levels were lowest during the
summer and early fall (Table 2.5), often falling below the state standard of 5.0 mg/L at
several river and upper estuary stations. Working synergistically to lower oxygen levels
are two factors: lower oxygen carrying capacity in warmer water and increased bacterial
respiration (or biochemical oxygen demand, BOD), due to higher temperatures in summer.
Unlike other large North Carolina estuaries (the Neuse, Pamlico and New River) the Cape
Fear estuary rarely suffers from dissolved oxygen stratification. This is because, despite
salinity stratification the oxygen remains well mixed due to strong estuarine gravitational
circulation and high freshwater inputs (Lin et al. 2006). Thus, hypoxia in the Cape Fear is
present throughout the water column.
11
There is a dissolved oxygen sag in the main river channel that begins at DP below a paper
mill discharge and persists into the mesohaline portion of the estuary (Fig. 2.2). Mean
oxygen levels were highest at the upper river stations NC11 and AC and in the low-to-
middle estuary at stations M35 to M18. Lowest mainstem mean 2013 DO levels occurred
at the river and upper estuary stations IC, NAV, HB, BRR and M61 (6.7-6.8 mg/L).
Stations NAV, HB, BRR, and M61 were all below 5.0 mg/L on 33% or more of occasions
sampled, and IC, DP and M54 were below on 25% of occasions sampled, an improvement
from 2012. Based on number of occasions the river stations were below 5 mg/L UNCW
rated NAV, HB, BRR, and M61 as poor for 2013; the mid to lower estuary stations were
rated as fair to good. Discharge of high BOD waste from the paper/pulp mill just above the
AC station (Mallin et al. 2003), as well as inflow of blackwater from the Northeast Cape
Fear and Black Rivers, helps to diminish oxygen in the lower river and upper estuary.
Additionally, algal blooms periodically form behind Lock and Dam #1 (including the blue-
green algal blooms in recent years), and the chlorophyll a they produce is strongly
correlated with BOD at Station NC11 (Mallin et al. 2006b); thus the blooms do contribute to
lower DO in the river. As the water reaches the lower estuary higher algal productivity,
mixing and ocean dilution help alleviate oxygen problems.
The Northeast Cape Fear and Black Rivers generally have lower DO levels than the
mainstem Cape Fear River (NCF117 2013 mean = 6.1, NCF6 = 6.5, B210 2013 mean =
6.4) . These rivers are classified as blackwater systems because of their tea colored
water. As the water passes through swamps en route to the river channel, tannins from
decaying vegetation leach into the water, resulting in the observed color. Decaying
vegetation on the swamp floor has an elevated biochemical oxygen demand and usurps
oxygen from the water, leading to naturally low dissolved oxygen levels. Runoff from
concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) may also contribute to chronic low
dissolved oxygen levels in these blackwater rivers (Mallin et al. 1998; 1999; 2006; Mallin
2000). We note that phosphorus and nitrogen (components of animal manure) levels have
been positively correlated with BOD in the blackwater rivers and their major tributaries
(Mallin et al. 2006b).
Several stream stations were severely stressed in terms of low dissolved oxygen during
the year 2013. Station GS had DO levels below 4.0 mg/L 42% of the occasions sampled,
with NC403, SR and LVC2 at 33% (Table 2.5). Some of this can be attributed to low
summer water conditions and some potentially to CAFO runoff; however point-source
discharges also likely contribute to low dissolved oxygen levels at NC403 and possibly SR,
especially via nutrient loading (Mallin et al. 2001a; 2002a; 2004). Hypoxia is thus a
continuing and widespread problem, with 44% of the sites impacted in 2013 (an
improvement from 2012 however).
Field Turbidity
Field turbidity levels ranged from 0 to 90 Nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) and station
annual means ranged from 1 to 13 NTU (Table 2.6). The State standard for estuarine
turbidity is 25 NTU. Highest mean turbidities were at NC11-DP, plus NAV (11-12 NTU)
with turbidities generally low in the middle to lower estuary (Figure 2.3). The estuarine
12
stations did not exceed the estuarine turbidity standard on our 2013 sampling trips.
Annual mean turbidity levels for 2013 were well below the long-term average at all estuary
sites (Fig. 2.3). Turbidity was considerably lower in the blackwater tributaries (Northeast
Cape Fear River and Black River) than in the mainstem river. Average turbidity levels
were low in the freshwater streams, with the exception of one excursion to 90 NTU in
December at LRC. The State standard for freshwater turbidity is 50 NTU.
Note: In addition to the laboratory-analyzed turbidity that are required my NCDWQ for
seven locations, the LCFRP uses nephelometers designed for field use, which allows us to
acquire in situ turbidity from a natural situation. North Carolina regulatory agencies are
required to use turbidity values from water samples removed from the natural system, put
on ice until arrival at a State-certified laboratory, and analyzed using laboratory
nephelometers. Standard Methods notes that transport of samples and temperature
change alters true turbidity readings. Our analysis of samples using both methods shows
that lab turbidity is nearly always lower than field turbidity; thus we do not discuss lab
turbidity in this report.
Total Suspended Solids
A new monitoring plan was developed for the LCFRP in September 2011. These changes
were suggested by the NC Division of Water Resources (then DWQ). NCDWR suggested
the LCFRP stop monitoring TSS at Stations ANC, GS, 6RC, LCO, SR, BRN, HAM, COL,
SR-WC and monitor turbidity instead. DWQ believed turbidity would be more useful than
TSS in evaluating water quality at these stations because there are water quality standards
for turbidity. TSS is used by the DWQ NPDES Unit to evaluate discharges. No LCFRP
subscribers discharge in these areas.
Total suspended solid (TSS) values system wide ranged from 1 to 151 mg/L with station
annual means from 2 to 19 mg/L (Table 2.7). The overall highest river values were at
NAV, M23 and M18. In the stream stations TSS was generally considerably lower than the
river and estuary, except for a few incidents at Station LRC and Station ROC. Although
total suspended solids (TSS) and turbidity both quantify suspended material in the water
column, they do not always go hand in hand. High TSS does not mean high turbidity and
vice versa. This anomaly may be explained by the fact that fine clay particles are effective
at dispersing light and causing high turbidity readings, while not resulting in high TSS. On
the other hand, large organic or inorganic particles may be less effective at dispersing
light, yet their greater mass results in high TSS levels. While there is no NC ambient
standard for TSS, many years of data from the lower Cape Fear watershed indicates that
25 mg/L can be considered elevated. The fine silt and clay in the upper to middle estuary
sediments are most likely derived from the Piedmont and carried downstream to the
estuary, while the sediments in the lowest portion of the estuary are marine-derived sands
(Benedetti et al. 2006).
13
Light Attenuation
The attenuation of solar irradiance through the water column is measured by a logarithmic
function (k) per meter. The higher this light attenuation coefficient is the more strongly light
is attenuated (through absorbance or reflection) in the water column. River and estuary
light attenuation coefficients ranged from 0.89 to 6.40/m and station annual means ranged
from 1.65 at M18 to 4.35 /m at NCF6 (Table 2.8). Elevated mean and median light
attenuation occurred from DP in the lower river downstream to M54 in the estuary (Table
2.8). In the Cape Fear system, light is attenuated by both turbidity and water color.
High light attenuation did not always coincide with high turbidity. Blackwater, though low in
turbidity, will attenuate light through absorption of solar irradiance. At NCF6 and BBT,
blackwater stations with moderate turbidity levels, light attenuation was high. Compared to
other North Carolina estuaries the Cape Fear has high average light attenuation. The high
average light attenuation is a major reason why phytoplankton production in the major
rivers and the estuary of the LCFR is generally low. Whether caused by turbidity or water
color this attenuation tends to limit light availability to the phytoplankton (Mallin et al. 1997;
1999; 2004; Dubbs and Whalen 2008).
Chemical Parameters – Nutrients
Total Nitrogen
Total nitrogen (TN) is calculated from TKN (see below) plus nitrate; it is not analyzed in the
laboratory. TN ranged from 50 (detection limit) to 5,150 g/L and station annual means
ranged from 237 to 1,978 g/L (Table 2.9). Mean total nitrogen in 2013 was considerably
lower than the seventeen-year mean at the river and estuary stations (Figure 2.4).
Previous research (Mallin et al. 1999) has shown a positive correlation between river flow
and TN in the Cape Fear system. In the main river total nitrogen concentrations were
highest between NC11 and DP, entering the system then declined into the lower estuary,
most likely reflecting uptake of nitrogen into the food chain through algal productivity and
subsequent grazing by planktivores as well as through dilution and marsh denitrification.
The highest median TN value at the stream stations was at ROC, with 1,945 g/L; other
elevated TN values were seen at ANC, NC403 and 6RC.
Nitrate+Nitrite
Nitrate+nitrite (henceforth referred to as nitrate) is the main species of inorganic nitrogen in
the Lower Cape Fear River. Concentrations system wide ranged from 10 (detection limit)
to 4,850 g/L and station annual means ranged from 19 to 1,561 g/L (Table 2.10). The
highest average riverine nitrate levels were at NC11 and AC (555 and 557 g/L,
respectively) indicating that much of this nutrient is imported from upstream. Moving
downstream, nitrate levels decrease most likely as a result of uptake by primary producers,
microbial denitrification in riparian marshes and tidal dilution. Despite this, the rapid
flushing of the estuary (Ensign et al. 2004) permits sufficient nitrate to enter the coastal
ocean in the plume and contribute to offshore productivity (Mallin et al. 2005b). Nitrate can
14
limit phytoplankton production in the lower estuary in summer (Mallin et al. 1999). The
blackwater rivers carried lower concentrations of nitrate compared to the mainstem Cape
Fear stations; i.e. the Northeast Cape Fear River (NCF117 mean = 240 g/L) and the
Black River (B210 = 184 g/L). Lowest river nitrate occurred during early summer and
early fall.
Several stream stations showed high levels of nitrate on occasion including ROC, 6RC,
GCO, NC403, and PB. 6RC, ROC and GCO primarily receive non-point agricultural or
animal waste drainage, while point sources contribute to NC403 and PB. Over the past
several years a considerable number of experiments have been carried out by UNCW
researchers to assess the effects of nutrient additions to water collected from blackwater
streams and rivers (i.e. the Black and Northeast Cape Fear Rivers, and Colly and Great
Coharie Creeks). These experiments have collectively found that additions of nitrogen (as
either nitrate, ammonium, or urea) significantly stimulate phytoplankton production and
BOD increases. Critical levels of these nutrients were in the range of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/L as N
(Mallin et al. 1998; Mallin et al. 2001a; Mallin et al. 2002a, Mallin et al. 2004). Thus, we
conservatively consider nitrate concentrations exceeding 0.5 mg/L as N in Cape Fear
watershed streams to be potentially problematic to the stream’s environmental health.
Ammonium/ammonia
Ammonium concentrations ranged from 5 (detection limit) to 1,070 g/L and station annual
means ranged from 10 to 238 g/L (Table 2.11). River areas with the highest mean
ammonium levels this monitoring period included AC and DP, which are downstream of a
pulp mill discharge, and NAV and HB in the upper estuary. Notable for 2013 were
elevated ammonium concentrations at the most saline station M18 (the highest average in
the system – Table 2.11). There is a major point source discharger (ADM) just upstream
of that site that may have accounted for the high ammonium. At the stream stations, areas
with highest levels of ammonium were PB, LVC2, NC403, ANC and HAM (Table 2.11).
ANC had the highest peak concentration of 1,070 g/L in July for unknown reasons; LVC2
had the second highest peak of 1,060 µg/L in August.
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) is a measure of the total concentration of organic nitrogen
plus ammonium. TKN ranged from 50 (detection limit) to 1,400 g/L and station annual
means ranged from 104 to 808 g/L (Table 2.12). TKN concentration decreases ocean-
ward through the estuary, likely due to ocean dilution and food chain uptake of nitrogen.
Several minor peals in the 1,000 µg/L range occurred in stations ANC, NC403 and COL;
ANC also had the highest median concentrations.
Total Phosphorus
Total phosphorus (TP) concentrations ranged from 10 (detection limit) to 1,250 g/L and
station annual means ranged from 33 to 398 g/L (Table 2.13). Mean TP for 2013 was
higher than the seventeen-year mean in the estuary and river stations (Figure 2.5). In the
15
river TP was highest at the upper riverine channel stations NC11, AC and DP and declined
downstream into the estuary. Some of this decline is attributable to the settling of
phosphorus-bearing suspended sediments, yet incorporation of phosphorus into bacteria
and algae is also responsible.
The experiments discussed above in the nitrate subsection also involved additions of
phosphorus, either as inorganic orthophosphate or a combination of inorganic plus organic
P. The experiments showed that additions of P exceeding 0.5 mg/L led to significant
increases in bacterial counts, as well as significant increases in BOD over control. Thus,
we consider concentrations of phosphorus above 0.5 mg/L (500 g/L) to be potentially
problematic to blackwater streams (Mallin et al. 1998; 2004). Streams periodically
exceeding this critical concentration included GCO, LCO, ROC and NC403. Station
NC403 is downstream of industrial or wastewater discharges, while GCO, LCO and ROC
are in non-point agricultural areas.
Orthophosphate
Orthophosphate ranged from undetectable to 730 g/L and station annual means ranged
from undetectable to 222 g/L (Table 2.14). Much of the orthophosphate load is imported
into the Lower Cape Fear system from upstream areas, as NC11 or AC typically have high
levels; there are also inputs of orthophosphate from the paper mill above AC (Table 2.14).
The Northeast Cape Fear River had higher orthophosphate levels than the Black River.
Orthophosphate can bind to suspended materials and is transported downstream via
particle attachment; thus high levels of turbidity at the uppermost river stations may be an
important factor in the high orthophosphate levels. Turbidity declines toward the lower
estuary because of settling, and orthophosphate concentration also declines. In the
estuary, primary productivity helps reduce orthophosphate concentrations by assimilation
into biomass. Orthophosphate levels typically reach maximum concentrations during
summertime, when anoxic sediment releases bound phosphorus. Also, in the Cape Fear
Estuary, summer algal productivity is limited by nitrogen, thereby allowing the
accumulation of orthophosphate (Mallin et al. 1997; 1999). In spring, productivity in the
estuary is usually limited by phosphorus (Mallin et al. 1997; 1999).
ROC, ANC and GCO had the highest stream station concentrations. All of those sites are
in non-point source areas.
Chemical Parameters - EPA Priority Pollutant Metals
The LCFRP had previously sampled for water column metals (EPA Priority Pollutant
Metals) on a bimonthly basis. However, as of 2007 this requirement was suspended by
the NC Division of Water Quality and these data are no longer collected by the LCFRP.
16
Biological Parameters
Chlorophyll a
During this monitoring period in most locations chlorophyll a was low, except for elevated
concentrations in summer and early fall at the lower estuary stations (Table 2.15). The
state standard was not exceeded in our samples in 2013. We note that at the upper site
NC11 it has been demonstrated that chlorophyll a biomass is significantly correlated with
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 – Mallin et al. 2006b). System wide, chlorophyll a
ranged from undetectable to 28 g/L and station annual means ranged from 2-10 g/L,
lower than in 2012. Production of chlorophyll a biomass is usually low to moderate in the
rivers and estuary primarily because of light limitation by turbidity in the mainstem (Dubbs
and Whalen 2008) and high organic color and low inorganic nutrients in the blackwater
rivers.
Spatially, besides Station NC11 along the mainstem high values are normally found in the
mid-to-lower estuary stations because light becomes more available downstream of the
estuarine turbidity maximum (Fig. 2.6). On average, flushing time of the Cape Fear
estuary is rapid, ranging from 1-22 days with a median of 6.7 days (Ensign et al. 2004).
This does not allow for much settling of suspended materials, leading to light limitation of
phytoplankton production. However, under lower-than-average flows there is generally
clearer water through less suspended material and less blackwater swamp inputs. For the
growing season May-September, long-term (1995-2012) average monthly flow at Lock and
Dam #1 was approximately 3,361 CFS (USGS data;
(http://nc.water.usgs.gov/realtime/real_time_cape_fear.html), whereas for 2013 discharge
in May-September was well above the average at 6,975 CFS. Thus, chlorophyll a
concentrations in the river and upper estuary were suppressed by increased flow; however
the lowest stations in the estuary, M35-M18 showed chlorophyll a increases (Figure 2.6).
As noted in earlier reports, blooms of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) called Microcystis
aeruginosa began occurring in 2009 and continued to occur in summer 2010, 2011 and
2012. This species contains many strains long known to produce toxins, both as a threat
to aquatic life and to humans as well (Burkholder 2002). At least some of the blooms in
the main stem of the Cape Fear have produced toxins (Isaacs 2013). River discharge
appears to be a major factor controlling formation and persistence of these blooms. The
blooms in 2009-2012 all occurred when average river discharge for May-September was
below 1,900 CFS. The cyanobacterial blooms were suppressed by elevated river flow in
2013.
Phytoplankton blooms occasionally occur at the stream stations, with a few occurring at
various months in 2013 (Table 2.15). These streams are generally shallow, so vertical
mixing does not carry phytoplankton cells down below the critical depth where respiration
17
exceeds photosynthesis. In areas where the forest canopy opens up large blooms can
occur. When blooms occur in blackwater streams they can become sources of BOD upon
death and decay, reducing further the low summer dissolved oxygen conditions common
to these waters (Mallin et al. 2001a; 2002a; 2004; 2006b). Stations PB and ANC had
minor algal blooms in 2013, although not exceeding the state standard of 40 µg/L (Table
2.15).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
For the mainstem river, median annual five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)
concentrations were approximately equivalent between NC11 and AC, suggesting that in
2013 (as was the case with 2007 through 2012) there was little discernable effect of BOD
loading from the nearby pulp/paper mill inputs (Table 2.16). BOD5 values between 1.0
and 2.0 mg/L are typical for the rivers in the Cape Fear system (Mallin et al. 2006b) and in
2013 BOD5 values ranged from 0.6 – 2.5 mg/L. There were no major differences among
sites for BOD5 or BOD20 in 2013. BOD20 values showed similar patterns to BOD5 in
2013.
Fecal Coliform Bacteria/ Enterococcus bacteria
Fecal coliform (FC) bacterial counts ranged from 5 to 11,000 CFU/100 mL and station
annual geometric means ranged from 33 to 436 CFU/100 mL (Table 2.17). The state
human contact standard (200 CFU/100 mL) was exceeded in the mainstem three times at
NAV and once each at AC, DP and IC in 2013. During 2013 the stream stations showed
high fecal coliform pollution levels. BRN exceeded 200 CFU/100 mL 100% of the time
sampled; HAM, PB and SAR 75%, LRC and ROC 58%, NC403 and ANC 50%, LVC2 42%,
and SC-CH 33% and SR-WC 30% of the time sampled. NC403 and PB are located below
point source discharges and the other sites are primarily influenced by non-point source
pollution.
Enterococcus counts were initiated in the estuary in mid-2011, as this test is now the
standard used by North Carolina regulators for swimming in salt waters. Sites covered by
this test include BRR, M61, M54, M35, M23 and M18. The State has a single-sample level
for Tier II swimming areas in which the enterococci level in a Tier II swimming area shall
not exceed a single sample of 276 enterococci per 100 milliliter of water (15A NCAC 18A
.3402); the LCFRP is using this standard for the Cape Fear estuary samples in our rating
system. As such, in 2013 station BRR exceeded the standard on two occasions, and M61
and M35 exceeded the standard on one occasion each. Overall, elevated fecal coliform
and enterococcus counts are problematic in this system, with 62% of the stations rated as
Fair or Poor in 2013, slightly lower than the previous year 2012.
2.4 - References Cited
APHA. 1995. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th ed.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
18
Benedetti, M.M., M.J. Raber, M.S. Smith and L.A. Leonard. 2006. Mineralogical indicators of alluvial sediment sources in the Cape Fear River basin, North Carolina. Physical Geography 27:258-281. Burkholder. J.M. 2002. Cyanobacteria. In “Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology” (G. Bitton, Ed.), pp 952-982. Wiley Publishers, New York. Dubbs, L. L. and S.C. Whalen. 2008. Light-nutrient influences on biomass, photosynthetic potential and composition of suspended algal assemblages in the middle Cape Fear River, USA. International Review of Hydrobiology 93:711-730. Ensign, S.H., J.N. Halls and M.A. Mallin. 2004. Application of digital bathymetry data in an analysis of flushing times of two North Carolina estuaries. Computers and Geosciences 30:501-511.
Isaacs, J.D. 2011. Chemical investigations of the metabolites of two strains of toxic cyanobacteria. M.S. Thesis, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C. Lin, J. L. Xie, L.J. Pietrafesa, J. Shen, M.A. Mallin and M.J. Durako. 2006. Dissolved oxygen stratification in two microtidal partially-mixed estuaries. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 70:423-437.
Mallin, M.A. 2000. Impacts of industrial-scale swine and poultry production on rivers and estuaries. American Scientist 88:26-37.
Mallin, M.A., L.B. Cahoon, M.R. McIver, D.C. Parsons and G.C. Shank. 1997. Nutrient
limitation and eutrophication potential in the Cape Fear and New River Estuaries.
Report No. 313. Water Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina,
Raleigh, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., L.B. Cahoon, D.C. Parsons and S.H. Ensign. 1998. Effect of organic and
inorganic nutrient loading on photosynthetic and heterotrophic plankton communities in
blackwater rivers. Report No. 315. Water Resources Research Institute of the
University of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., L.B. Cahoon, M.R. McIver, D.C. Parsons and G.C. Shank. 1999. Alternation
of factors limiting phytoplankton production in the Cape Fear Estuary. Estuaries
22:985-996.
Mallin, M.A., M.H. Posey, M.R. McIver, S.H. Ensign, T.D. Alphin, M.S. Williams, M.L.
Moser and J.F. Merritt. 2000. Environmental Assessment of the Lower Cape Fear River
System, 1999-2000. CMS Report No. 00-01, Center for Marine Science, University of
North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., L.B. Cahoon, D.C. Parsons and S.H. Ensign. 2001a. Effect of nitrogen and
phosphorus loading on plankton in Coastal Plain blackwater streams. Journal of
Freshwater Ecology 16:455-466.
19
Mallin, M.A., M.H. Posey, T.E. Lankford, M.R. McIver, S.H. Ensign, T.D. Alphin, M.S.
Williams, M.L. Moser and J.F. Merritt. 2001b. Environmental Assessment of the Lower
Cape Fear River System, 2000-2001. CMS Report No. 01-01, Center for Marine
Science, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., L.B. Cahoon, M.R. McIver and S.H. Ensign. 2002a. Seeking science-based
nutrient standards for coastal blackwater stream systems. Report No. 341. Water
Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., M.H. Posey, T.E. Lankford, M.R. McIver, H.A. CoVan, T.D. Alphin, M.S.
Williams and J.F. Merritt. 2002b. Environmental Assessment of the Lower Cape Fear
River System, 2001-2002. CMS Report No. 02-02, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver, H.A. Wells, M.S. Williams, T.E. Lankford and J.F. Merritt. 2003.
Environmental Assessment of the Lower Cape Fear River System, 2002-2003. CMS
Report No. 03-03, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina at
Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver, S.H. Ensign and L.B. Cahoon. 2004. Photosynthetic and heterotrophic impacts of nutrient loading to blackwater streams. Ecological Applications 14:823-838. Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver, T.D. Alphin, M.H. Posey and J.F. Merritt. 2005a. Environmental Assessment of the Lower Cape Fear River System, 2003-2004. CMS Report No. 05-02, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., L.B. Cahoon and M.J. Durako. 2005b. Contrasting food-web support bases for adjoining river-influenced and non-river influenced continental shelf ecosystems. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 62:55-62. Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver and J.F. Merritt. 2006a. Environmental Assessment of the Lower Cape Fear River System, 2005. CMS Report No. 06-02, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., V.L. Johnson, S.H. Ensign and T.A. MacPherson. 2006b. Factors contributing
to hypoxia in rivers, lakes and streams. Limnology and Oceanography 51:690-701.
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Cape Fear River System, 2007. CMS Report No. 08-03, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
20
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Cape Fear River System, 2008. CMS Report No. 09-06, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
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Cape Fear River System, 2009. CMS Report No. 10-04, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver and J.F. Merritt. 2011. Environmental Assessment of the Lower
Cape Fear River System, 2010. CMS Report No. 11-02, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver and J.F. Merritt. 2012. Environmental Assessment of the Lower
Cape Fear River System, 2011. CMS Report No. 12-03, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
Mallin, M.A., M.R. McIver and J.F. Merritt. 2013. Environmental Assessment of the Lower
Cape Fear River System, 2012. CMS Report No. 13-02, Center for Marine Science,
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, N.C.
U.S. EPA 1997. Methods for the Determination of Chemical Substances in Marine and
Estuarine Environmental Matrices, 2nd Ed. EPA/600/R-97/072. National Exposure
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Welschmeyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of
chlorophyll b and phaeopigments. Limnology and Oceanography 39:1985-1993.
21
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L
1,
1
9
0
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6
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2
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0
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3
0
3
8
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2
9
0
JU
L
20
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1
8
0
3
0
8
0
5
0
1
4
0
AU
G
22
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2
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4
0
7
7
0
5
4
0
9
0
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3
1
0
AU
G
1,
0
1
0
3
4
0
4
5
0
6
0
5
7
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1
2
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AU
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45
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17
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SE
P
88
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6
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SE
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34
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2
3
0
2
0
2
4
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4
0
2
5
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OC
T
10
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1
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3
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OC
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30
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0
4
0
1
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1
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OC
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10
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V
50
3
6
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7
8
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92
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10
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C
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1
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DE
C
89
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DE
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54
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me
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2
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27
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34
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17
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3
me
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15
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3
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me
d
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88
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2
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me
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25
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ma
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54
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mi
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mi
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30
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4
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1
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mi
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10
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0
1
0
1
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31
Ta
b
l
e
2
.
1
1
A
m
m
o
n
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m
(g/
l
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a
t
t
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e
L
o
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r
C
a
p
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F
e
a
r
R
i
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e
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s
t
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s
d
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r
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n
g
2
0
1
3
.
NA
V
HB
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
NC
1
1
A
C
D
P
I
C
N
C
F
6
JA
N
60
6
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
4
0
1
3
0
2
0
0
2
3
0
JA
N
70
8
0
8
0
7
0
3
0
FE
B
19
0
1
7
0
1
7
0
1
6
0
1
3
0
1
1
0
1
3
0
1
6
0
FE
B
11
0
1
7
0
1
6
0
1
6
0
7
0
MA
R
90
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
3
0
1
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0
6
0
3
2
0
MA
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90
9
0
1
7
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1
1
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6
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AP
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15
0
1
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1
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7
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AP
R
13
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1
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MA
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15
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1
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MA
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12
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1
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6
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JU
N
11
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1
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JU
N
90
1
3
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1
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JU
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11
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1
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9
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8
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1
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10
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9
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10
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1
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7
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80
9
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70
7
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80
8
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OC
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50
4
0
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0
2
0
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0
1
0
1
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4
3
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OC
T
30
5
0
6
0
5
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1
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NO
V
70
7
0
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3
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1
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NO
V
60
1
0
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8
0
8
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DE
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60
5
0
6
0
7
0
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0
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1
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DE
C
50
8
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8
0
6
0
2
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me
a
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1
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1
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9
8
9
8
9
8
9
1
1
3
3
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8
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8
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9
6
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st
d
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44
4
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st
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29
3
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me
d
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95
9
5
9
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9
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2
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me
d
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85
9
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6
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ma
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19
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3
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4
3
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ma
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13
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0
min
50
4
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mi
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30
5
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6
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5
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C
S
A
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C
4
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C
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N
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NC
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1
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7
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2
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JA
N
70
2
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2
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JA
N
10
0
4
0
4
0
130
FE
B
31
0
2
0
1
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2
0
5
0
1
4
0
6
0
FE
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10
0
8
0
4
0
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5
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FE
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13
0
3
0
4
0
90
MA
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15
0
4
0
6
0
7
0
9
0
5
0
9
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MA
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60
7
0
1
0
1
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3
0
3
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MA
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10
0
6
0
9
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9
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9
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40
8
0
5
0
5
0
9
0
8
0
6
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AP
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70
6
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
4
0
6
2
0
AP
R
80
7
0
8
0
8
0
1
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1
1
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MA
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15
0
6
0
6
0
8
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1
7
0
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1
0
8
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MA
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13
0
5
0
5
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8
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MA
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60
6
0
2
2
0
5
0
1
2
0
1
1
0
JU
N
18
0
1
2
0
1
8
0
4
6
0
1
9
0
1
5
0
2
2
0
JU
N
10
0
8
0
1
3
0
1
0
0
6
0
1
3
0
JU
N
18
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
7
0
1
0
0
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L
1,
0
7
0
5
0
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2
6
0
4
1
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1
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0
6
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JU
L
70
7
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1
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0
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1
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0
9
0
JU
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90
5
0
6
0
6
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8
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8
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AU
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19
0
9
0
1
5
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1
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0
2
3
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0
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1
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AU
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70
8
0
8
0
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0
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AU
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70
8
0
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9
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0
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0
SE
P
80
5
0
4
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9
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1
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0
6
0
SE
P
30
4
0
5
0
1
3
0
4
0
4
0
SE
P
60
7
0
7
0
5
0
1
0
0
9
0
OC
T
60
5
0
6
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9
0
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3
0
6
0
6
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OC
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10
1
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1
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1
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1
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1
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OC
T
30
3
0
5
0
3
0
7
0
4
0
NO
V
30
3
0
2
0
4
0
7
0
2
0
2
0
NO
V
30
3
0
2
0
1
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1
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1
0
NO
V
50
4
0
2
0
4
0
3
0
0
9
0
DE
C
40
3
0
1
0
7
0
8
0
1
1
0
3
0
DE
C
40
1
0
2
0
1
0
3
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1
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C
40
2
0
2
0
2
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4
0
4
0
me
a
n
1
9
9
6
1
6
9
1
2
3
1
5
3
9
5
7
8
me
a
n
6
5
5
0
6
0
6
1
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9
8
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a
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8
3
5
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7
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1
8
8
8
8
st
d
d
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v
28
6
3
2
5
3
1
2
2
1
0
0
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7
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1
st
d
d
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v
34
2
7
5
6
6
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3
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1
6
9
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d
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42
1
9
5
5
2
6
2
8
2
2
8
me
d
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12
0
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6
0
8
5
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2
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1
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5
6
0
me
d
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a
n
70
5
5
4
5
4
0
4
0
4
5
me
d
i
a
n
75
5
5
6
5
5
5
9
5
9
5
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x
1,
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7
0
1
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0
1
8
0
4
6
0
4
1
0
1
5
0
2
2
0
ma
x
13
0
8
0
1
9
0
2
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0
1
0
0
6
2
0
ma
x
18
0
8
0
2
2
0
9
0
1
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0
6
0
1
2
0
min
30
2
0
1
0
2
0
5
0
2
0
2
0
mi
n
10
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
mi
n
30
2
0
2
0
2
0
4
0
4
0
32
Ta
b
l
e
2
.
1
2
T
o
t
a
l
K
j
e
l
d
a
h
l
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
(
g/
l
)
a
t
t
h
e
L
o
w
e
r
C
a
p
e
F
e
a
r
R
i
v
e
r
P
r
o
g
r
a
m
s
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
d
u
r
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n
g
2
0
1
3
.
NA
V
HB
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
NC
1
1
A
C
D
P
I
C
N
C
F
6
JA
N
60
0
5
0
0
5
0
0
6
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
JA
N
40
0
4
0
0
6
0
0
4
0
0
6
0
0
FE
B
30
0
6
0
0
8
0
0
4
0
0
4
0
0
2
0
0
5
0
1
0
0
FE
B
40
0
4
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0
MA
R
30
0
4
0
0
4
0
0
4
0
0
1
2
0
0
4
0
0
5
0
5
0
MA
R
40
0
5
0
0
3
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
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AP
R
30
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0
2
0
0
5
0
5
0
AP
R
50
0
4
0
0
5
0
5
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0
5
0
0
MA
Y
60
0
7
0
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5
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0
5
0
MA
Y
30
0
4
0
0
6
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
JU
N
40
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
4
0
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5
0
0
4
0
0
4
0
0
5
0
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N
40
0
6
0
0
7
0
0
5
0
0
5
0
0
JU
L
50
5
0
5
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
JU
L
30
0
2
0
0
5
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
AU
G
20
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
4
0
0
5
0
AU
G
50
5
0
5
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
SE
P
50
5
0
5
0
1
0
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
SE
P
50
5
0
5
0
5
0
1
0
0
OC
T
10
0
5
0
5
0
1
0
0
5
0
5
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
OC
T
50
5
0
5
0
5
0
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0
0
NO
V
10
0
2
0
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
3
0
0
5
0
2
0
0
NO
V
50
5
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
DE
C
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38
051015202530
NA
V
H
B
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
N
C
F
6
S
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-
C
H
Salinity (PSU)
Fi
g
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2
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1
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1
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s
2
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1
3
.
1995-2012 2013
39
0123456789
NC
1
1
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N
A
V
H
B
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
N
C
F
1
1
7
N
C
F
6
B
2
1
0
B
B
T
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
Fi
g
u
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2
.
2
D
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s
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v
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O
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,
19
9
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2
0
1
2
v
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s
2
0
1
3
.
1995-2012 2013
40
051015202530
NC
1
1
A
C
D
P
I
C
N
A
V
H
B
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
N
C
F
1
1
7
N
C
F
6
B
2
1
0
B
B
T
Field Turbidity (NTU)
Fi
g
u
r
e
2
.
3
F
i
e
l
d
T
u
r
b
i
d
i
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y
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,
19
9
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0
1
2
v
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s
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s
2
0
1
3
.
1995-2012 2013
41
0
20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
10
0
0
12
0
0
14
0
0
16
0
0
NC
1
1
A
C
D
P
I
C
N
A
V
H
B
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
N
C
F
1
1
7
N
C
F
6
B
2
1
0
Total Nitrogen (g/L)
Fi
g
u
r
e
2
.
4
T
o
t
a
l
N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
a
t
t
h
e
L
o
w
e
r
C
a
p
e
F
e
a
r
R
i
v
e
r
P
r
o
g
r
a
m
m
a
i
n
s
t
e
m
s
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
,
1
9
9
5
-
20
1
2
v
e
r
s
u
s
2
0
1
3
.
1995-2012 2013
42
050
10
0
15
0
20
0
25
0
NC
1
1
A
C
D
P
I
C
N
A
V
H
B
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
N
C
F
1
1
7
N
C
F
6
B
2
1
0
Total Phosphorus (g/L)
Fi
g
u
r
e
2
.
5
T
o
t
a
l
P
h
o
s
p
h
o
r
u
s
a
t
t
h
e
L
o
w
e
r
C
a
pe
F
e
a
r
R
i
v
e
r
P
r
o
g
r
a
m
m
a
i
n
s
t
e
m
s
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
,
19
9
5
-
2
0
1
2
v
e
r
s
u
s
2
0
1
3
.
1995-2012 2013
43
012345678910
NC
1
1
A
C
D
P
I
C
N
A
V
H
B
B
R
R
M
6
1
M
5
4
M
3
5
M
2
3
M
1
8
N
C
F
1
1
7
N
C
F
6
B
2
1
0
B
B
T
Chlorophyll a(g/L)
Fi
g
u
r
e
2
.
6
C
h
l
o
r
o
p
h
y
l
l
a
at
t
h
e
L
o
w
e
r
C
a
p
e
F
e
a
r
R
i
v
e
r
P
r
o
g
r
a
m
m
a
i
n
s
t
e
m
s
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
,
19
9
5
-
2
0
1
2
v
e
r
s
u
s
2
0
1
3
.
1995-2012 2013
44